By Ms. Sara Khatoon, MS in International Relations, COMSATS University Islamabad and Research Fellow at university of Religions and Denominations Qom, Iran. Winner of the Article Writing Competition (2nd position) on the theme “China’s Cultural Footprint Through the Ages” held in March-April 2024.
Abstract: Ancient China brags a ironic and complex philosophical tradition that has deeply influenced the country’s culture, society, and governance for eras. The history of the major schools of philosophy that developed during this time, with a particular emphasis on Buddhism Daoism, and Confucianism. The purpose of this article is to demonstrate the lasting influence of ancient Chinese philosophy and its applicability to the contemporary day by briefly examining the core ideas of each philosophy and their effects on Chinese culture.
Introduction: The term philosophy comes from the ancient Greek word philia, which means lover or pursuer of wisdom (Sophia). However, the term “philosopher” did not apply to the first Greek philosophers; instead, they were referred to as “sages” An early example of philosophical reasoning in action may be traced to the sage tradition. Sages are sometimes linked to scientific and mathematical innovations, and other times to their influence on politics. It shows an openness to inquire about customs, an interest in the natural world and our role in it, and an effort to employ reason to improve our understanding of the natural world, people, and society.
The narrative of the sage tradition, tracing its roots mostly back to prehistoric times, emphasizes how inventions essential to the development of ancient civilizations were the result of devotion, knowledge, intelligence, and morality. The sage tradition is blended, especially in Greece, with the natural philosophy era of antiquity, when scholars and scientists attempted to rationally explain nature. Chinese philosophy lays a strong emphasis on the sage (sheng) tradition. (Smith, 2022).
Ancient Chinese philosophies had a significant impact on ancient Chinese civilization. These ideologies emerged in reaction to the turmoil in politics that followed the power difficulties between warring kingdoms. After the Zhou Dynasty (1046–256 BCE) began to decline, philosophers established their own schools during the spring and Autumn Period (c. 772-476 BCE) and the Warring States Period (c. 481-221 BCE). These schools’ belief systems are collectively referred to as Ancient Chinese Philosophy (Childs-Johnson, 2020).
The major “three pillars” of ancient Chinese Philosophy are (Confucianism, Daoism and Buddhism. In Chinese history, three competing philosophical perspectives gained dominance during the Warring States era.
- Confucianism is an ethical system centered on moral purity, social harmony, and maternal devotion.
- Daoism was a global peace philosophy that advised its adherents to avoid being overly engaged in worldly matters.
- Buddhism is a philosophy that emphasizes gaining profound knowledge and personal growth.
Three of these philosophies even became official state ideas, and they had an impact on the early Chinese empires. As ideologies and religious systems, they had an impact on politics, science, the arts, social structure, and spirituality. Even while there have occasionally been differences between their particular teachings and beliefs, there have also been a lot of similarities.
Rather than one tradition dominating and driving away the others, the three schools of thought have shaped society in together, occasionally blending. Comprehending the distinct interplay of these three traditions provides a valuable understanding of both contemporary and historical Chinese culture.
Confucianism: Confucianism originated approximately 600 years before the Christian era in the east of present-day China (Shandong province) (Guoqing Zhang, 2007). Confucius, the father of Confucianism, lived from 551 to 479 BCE. It is a philosophical framework encompassing politics, society, ethics, and quasi-religion that also influenced Korea and Japan. The major key concepts were ‘ren’ (humanity), ‘Chengming’ (name alteration; an unjust king can be expelled), ‘Chang’ (loyalty), ‘Xiao’ (family obligations), and ‘li’ (pickle) (Tucker, 2022).
Confucius transformed traditional religious teachings into rules for social customs. Confucius did not emphasize mysticism, gods, and goddesses, or other spiritual issues like the afterlife. For this reason, although being frequently included with other major religions, Confucianism is regarded as a philosophy rather than a religion. From 206 BCE until 220 CE, Confucianism emerged as the leading political theory of the Han Dynasty (Schafer, 1951). Confucianism was used by the state to uphold the status quo going ahead since its conservative principles encouraged individuals to preserve their place in social order.
Taoism: Taoism was established in the sixth century B.C. (Guoqing Zhang, 2007). The Chinese religion Taoism sometimes referred to as Daoism, originated around two thousand years after Confucianism. The doctrines of three of Taoism’s well-known schools are philosophical Taoism, religious Taoism, and syncretic Taoism—represent its three periods. The late Zhou Dynasty and the Warring States Period that followed the emergence of the first phase of philosophical Taoism (6th to 3rd century BCE).
It is defined by the teachings of Zhuangzi and Lao Tzu. The idea of the Tao (the Way), which stands for the fundamental idea and cosmic force guiding the cosmos, is emphasized in this phase. Philosophical Taoism encourages simplicity, spontaneity, and inaction (wu wei) as means of leading a simple, harmonious life with the Tao. Wu wei (effortless activity), ziran (naturalness), and yin and yang (complementary opposites) are some of the key ideas. Taoist philosophy emphasizes virtue cultivation, self-realization, and inner development.
The religious second phase of Taoism is a religious movement that originated in the Han Dynasty (2nd century CE) and includes a wide variety of rituals, practices, and beliefs. It combines aspects of indigenous spiritual traditions, Chinese mythology, and folk religion .The third phase Syncretic Taoism originated in the Tang Dynasty (7th to 10th century CE) and is a synthesis of Confucian, Buddhist, and Taoist practices and ideas. It captures the moments in Chinese history when there was a syncretism and exchange of cultures.
Chinese civilization was able to incorporate ideas from both traditions because Taoist and Confucian beliefs are not entirely in conflict with one another. Though Taoism had an impact on literature and the arts, science was the field where Taoist influence was greatest. Chinese medicine was influenced by the Taoist emphasis on natural components and understanding how the natural world functions. Taoists used testing to see how various remedies impacted humans and animals, just like scientists do today.
Buddhism: Buddhism originated in Northern India about six hundred years before the Christian era. Its founder was Buddha Gautama (560–480 B.C.), also identified as Shakyamuni “the sage from the clan of the Shakyas” (Guoqing Zhang, 2007). The third main belief system in ancient China was Buddhism. Buddhism is a philosophy that emphasizes gaining fundamental knowledge and growing as a person.
Through spiritual practice, instruction, and meditation, Buddhists aim to attain enlightenment. Key concepts of Buddhism include the Four Noble Truths, which describe the nature of suffering (dukkha), its causes, and the way out of suffering, are important ideas in Buddhism. The idea of non-self (anatta) and the concept of impermanence (anicca), which holds that all things are transitory and devoid of fundamental existence, are essential to these teachings. The Eightfold Path is a useful roadmap for those who want to end their suffering and reach enlightenment (nirvana) (Brown, 2002) .
It consists of moral behavior, mental discipline, and wisdom. Buddhism places a strong emphasis on developing wisdom, being attentive, and practicing compassion as ways to end misery and reach spiritual. Taoists adopted and altered the institutional framework of Buddhism, which had an impact on Taoism as well. Buddhism and Taoism developed a rivalry to attract more adherents and political clout, and this rivalry boosted the life of both faiths. As Buddhism spread, its principles combined with those of Taoism and Confucianism to form the foundation of ancient Chinese governance and society.
Chinese literature, art, and architecture are examples of its impact. Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism all contributed to values and concepts that are still widely accepted in Chinese society today. The ancient Chinese culture valued all three of these philosophies highly and applied their various teachings to many aspects of daily life, despite the variations and often contradictory aspects among them.
Conclusion: In the end, the philosophical ideas of ancient China reflect a rich and enduring legacy that continues to influence how we discover morality, society, and human life. These philosophical traditions, spanning from the practical government of legalism to the metaphysical reflections of Daoism and the ethical precepts of Confucianism, provide insightful understandings of the intricacies of the human instance.
These philosophical ideas have impacted Chinese civilization throughout history and have also had a lasting impact on world culture and philosophy. The insights of ancient Chinese philosophy are still pertinent today as we endeavor to navigate an increasingly connected world and deal with current issues.
Through the examination and contemplation of these ancient philosophical traditions, we get significant insights into matters like morality, governing, and the quest for purpose and happiness in life. In the end, the philosophical ideas of ancient China serve as a reminder of the universality of human impulses and the never-ending pursuit of knowledge, harmony, and wisdom.
